Matter is the physical stuff that everything around us is generally made of. Trees, birds, water, etc., are all examples of matter. Since almost everything is considered matter, scientists have naturally found ways to classify matter to better understand it.
Types of Matter
One way matter is classified whether it is a pure substance or a mixture. A pure substance is a substance that has the same properties throughout out it. An example of a pure substance would be salt or sugar. Both of the substances are only made of salt or sugar, and the properties of these two substances are the same if you have one or the other in a sample.
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On the other hand, a mixture is a combination of two or more substances. For example, if you have salt and pepper inside the same shaker, this is a mixture. This is because separating the salt and the pepper from each other is possible. Separating pure substances is generally not possible physically. However, pure substances can further be broken down into elements and compounds.
Elements are fundamental substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. The periodic table contains all known elements. Examples include oxygen, sodium, carbon, etc. Compounds are pure substances that are made of two or more elements. Compound examples include salt, sugar, carbon dioxide, etc.
More on Mixtures
Returning to mixtures, there are two types of mixtures: homogenous and heterogeneous. Homogenous mixtures have the same composition throughout the sample. Examples include milk and sugar water. In both of these examples, the substances that make up the mixture are evenly spread throughout the sample.
Heterogeneous mixtures have different compositions in parts of the sample. A classic example of this is salad dressing. When salad dressing is allowed to sit, it separates clearly into the various substances/homogenous mixture that it is made up of. This is why salad dressing must be shaken before it is enjoyed.
Law of mass conservation
Antoine Lauren de Lavoisier developed the law of mass conservation, which states that in any chemical or physical process, the total mass of everything involved must remain the same. This means that if you start with 5 kg of wood and burn it, there will still be 5kg of matter in a different form. You might see a pile of ashes that weighs less but what happens is that some of the matter was converted to gases and smoke in the burning process. Essentially, matter can be created or destroyed but can only be converted or broken down.
Conclusion
No pun intended, but matter matters. For students, it is important to develop an understanding of concepts related to chemistry. Doing so may help at least some of them prepare for whatever occupation they may have in the future.
It seems you can do anything with LaTeX. The example in the video below will show you how to make bar graphs. This is useful if you need to share your file and do not want to have to attach a bunch jpegs in a folder when sending it.
When it comes to measurement in research. There are some rules and concepts a student needs to be aware of that are not difficult to master but can be tricky. Measurement can be conducted at different levels. The two main levels are categorical and continuous.
Categorical measurement involves counting discrete values. An example of something measured at the categorical level is the cellphone brand. A cellphone can be Apple or Samsung, but it cannot be both. In other words, there is no phone out there that is half Samsung and half Apple. Being an Apple or Samsung phone is mutually exclusive, and no phone can have both qualities simultaneously. Therefore, categorical measurement deals with whole numbers, and generally, there are no additional rules to keep in mind.
However, with continuous measurement, things become more complicated. Continuous measurement involves an infinite number of potential values. For example, distance and weight can be measured continuously. A distance can be 1 km or 1.24 km, or 1.234. It all depends on the precision of the measurement tool. The point to remember now is that categorical measurement often has limit values that can be used while continuous has an almost limitless set of values that can be used.
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Since the continuous measurement is so limitless, there are several additional concepts that a student needs to mastery. One, the units involved must always be included. At least one reason for this is that it is common to convert units from one to the other. However, with categorical data, you generally will not convert phone units to some other unit.
A second concern is to be aware of the precision and accuracy of your measurement. Precision has to do with how fine the measurement is. For example, you can measure something the to the tenth, the hundredth, the thousandth, etc. As you add decimals, you are improving the precision. Accuracy is how correct the measurement is. If a person’s weight is 80kg, but your measurement is 63.456789kg, this is an example of high precision with low accuracy.
Another important concept when dealing with continuous measurement is understanding how many significant figures are involved. The ideas of significant figures are explored below.
Significant figures
Significant figures are digit that contributes to the precision of a measurement. This term is not related to significance as defined in statistics related to hypothesis testing.
An example of significant figures is as follows. If you have a scale that measures to the thousandth of a kg, you must report measurements to the thousandths of a kg. For example, 2 kg is not how you would report this based on the precision of your tool. Rather, you would report 2.000kg. This implies that the weight is somewhere between 1.995 and 2.004 kg. This is really important if you are conducting measurements in the scientific domain.
There are also several rules in regards to determining the number of significant figures, and they are explained below
All non zeros are significant
Example-123 are all non-zeros and thus are all significant in this case
A zero is significant if it is between two significant numbers
example-1023. The 0 is in between 1 and 2 and is thus significant
Zeros are significant if it is at the end of a number and to the right of the decimal
Example 2.00: Here, the 0’s are to the right of the decimal, which makes them significant
Each of the examples discussed so far has been individual examples. However, what happens when numbers are added or multiplied. The next section covers this in detail
Significant Figures in Math
Addition/Subtraction
When adding and subtracting measurements, you must report the measurement results with the less precise measurement.
example
115kg – 16.234kg = 98.766kg, but the least precise measurement is 115kg, so we round the answer to 99 kg. This is because our precision is limited to one’s place.
Multiply/Divide
When multiply or dividing measurements report results with the same number of significant figures as the measurement with the fewest significant figures
example 1
16.423 m / 101 m = 0.16260396 m
This number is too long. The second number, 101, has three significant figures, so our answer will have 3 significant figures, 0.163m. The zero to the left of the decimal is insignificant and does not count in the total.
example 2
8.0 cm * 3.208 = 25.664 cm2 or 26cm2 the first number has two significant digits, so the answer can only have two significant figures, which leads to an answer of 26cm2.
Converting Units
Finally, there are rules for converting units as well. To convert units, you must know the relationship that the two units have. For example, there are 2.54 cms per inch. Often this information is provided for you, and simply apply it. Once the relationship between units is known, it is common to use the factor label method for conversion. Below is an example.
To solve this problem, it is simply a matter of canceling the numerator of one fraction and the denominator of another fraction because, in this example, they are the same. This is shown below.
Essentially there was no calculation involved. Understanding shortcuts like this saves a tremendous amount of time. What is really important is that this idea applies to units as well. Below is an example.
In the example above, we are converting inches to meters. We know that there is 2.54cm in 1 inch. We set up our fractions as shown above. The inches cancel because they are in the numerator of one fraction and the denominator of another. The only unit left is cm. We multiply across and get our answer. Since 24.0cm has the fewest number of significant figures are the answer will also have three significant figures, and that is why its 61.0cm
Scientiifc Nottation
There can be problems with following the rules of significant figures. For example, if you want to convert meters to centimeters. There can be a problem.
The answer should only have three significant figures, but our answer has one significant figure. We need to move two zeros to the right of the decimal.
This is done with scientific notation as shown vbelow.
This simple trick allows us to keep the number of signifcant figures that we need without hhanging the value of then umber.
Below is an example of how to do this with a really small number that is a decimal.
Conclusion
This post explains some of the rules involved with numbers in scientific measurement. These rules are critical in terms of meeting expectations for communicating quantitative results.
Moving between workbooks with the mouse is how most people do this in Excel However, with VBA all of this can be made automated for various purposes. The video below shows you how to code this process using VBA,
LaTex is a highly flexible typesetting program that seems to be capable of almost anything. Here, we will learn how to make bar graphs use this language.
Simple Bar Graph
Below is the code and the bar graph for simple bar graph.
Here is what is happening in the code
Line 1-2 we declare our document class and load the only package we need which is pgfplots.
Line 3-5 we declare the various environments needed
Line 6-12 are all the details we need to create the axis on which our data will be.
Line 7 gives the title of the graph
Line 8 makes the graph a bar graph
Line 9 places the numbers above the bars in the bar graph to make it easier to read. This line also controls how thick the bars are
Line 10 sets the names for the x-axis
Line 11 makes sure each bar only has one name
Line 13 creates the plot. Inside the curly braces you have in parentheses the name of the group and the frquency.
The rest of the code closes the enviornments
Multiple Bars
In the code below we will add several bar graphs to one plot and also add a legend. The code is mostly the same below.
The new information is in lines 12-15. These lines contain the information for the legend. The at argument tells where to put the legend at, anchor tells LaTex how to hold it and the column sep determines the width of the column.
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The next important information is in lines 19-23. Here is were we add additional bars. The arguments in side still tell LaTex what color the numbers above the bar should be as well as the color of the bar graphs. The coordinates is were you can hand code the values for the x axis.
The final example will use raw data already available in LaTex to make a bar graph.
Using Data
Below is the code followed by the bar plot
New information is found first in lines 4-9. Here we use a command called “pgfplotstableread” in order to create the table. The table is found in lines 5-9. The first row sets the columns of the table and lines 6-8 is our actual data. In line 9 we give our table a name called “mydata.” It is important to note that this table will not appear in your pdf. Rather this table is just for storing information.If you want to show the table you need to make a table the traditional way.
Line 15 has the names of the groups in our data which were animal names. The next major change is in line 18. Here, we use the “addplot” command to add a table with the x as animal and the y as weight. Next to this information in curly braces is the name of the dateset called mydata.
If you look at the table you can see that we have information on the animals weight and speed but the bar plot only shows weight. In Line 19 there was some code in red which means that it was not compiled. By removing the percent sign we can run all the code and get the following.
The idea of adding to a bar plot remains the same. Just create another instance of the command and run it.
Conclusion
Making bar plots in LaTex is another convenient tool. It allows you to manipulate the data inside LaTex rather then having to pull images from your folder. If your data is stable and not going to change this might be worth while.
This video will combine knowledge of for loops and worksheets in two different examples in VBA. The first example will show you how to insert data into several worksheets. The second example will show you how to create worksheets and rename them using Excel VBA.
This post wuill provide an explanation of how to use the following commands in SQL
NOT
AND
BETWEEN
NOT
The NOT command is used to exclude data based on some criteria. In the example, below we will use the NOT command to exclude basketball players who play the power forward or shooting guard position. The code is next followed by the output.
SELECT *
FROM Seasons_Stats
WHERE Pos NOT IN ('PF','SG')
Here is a breakdown of the code.
Line 1 tells SQL to select all columns in the dataset
Line 2 explain which table to use
Line 3 Use the WHERE command first which serves as a filter. Next, the NOT command means to exclude what comes next. The IN command indicates specifically what will be excluded. The information in the parentheses is the categories to remove from the column called “POS”
IF you look at the first ten rows shown above you will see there are no PF or SG in the POS column which is what we wanted.
The example above excluded text data but we can also exclude numerical values as well. In the code below we replace the “Pos” column with the “Year” and we exclude the Years of 1950 and 1051. The code and output are below.
SELECT *
FROM Seasons_Stats
WHERE "Year" NOT IN (1950,1951)
If you look at the “Year” colum you can see it does not start until 1952. In addition. you can clearly see that there are PF and SG in the “Pos” column which used to be what we exlcuded in the previous example.
AND Command
The AND command is used whe n you have multiple criteria for including or excluding information. In the code below we continue to exlcude plauers from 1950 and 1951 but then with the AND command we exclude players whose first name starts with an A. Below is the code and output.
SELECT *
FROM Seasons_Stats
WHERE "Year" NOT IN (1950,1951) AND NOT Player LIKE 'A%'
ORDER BY Player
What’s new this time is the use of the LIKE command which is used when you are not exactly sure what you are looking for. THis is way the “A” is in sinle quotes followed by the percent sign. THis tells SQL to exclude anything that starts with an A.
BETWEEN Command
The BETWEEN command is when you are searching to include values that fit a certain range. In the code below, we remove the NOT command and include the BETWEEN and the AND command. THis means that we want to include rows that meet our critria rather than exlcude them.
SELECT *
FROM Seasons_Stats
WHERE Age BETWEEN 41 AND 43
ORDER BY Age
In this code we want any player who is between 41 and 43 years of age. Below is the same output but written with the use of the NOT command
SELECT *
FROM Seasons_Stats
WHERE Age NOT BETWEEN 18 AND 40
ORDER BY Age
Which is better probably comes down to preference
Conclusion
The commands mentioned here are among some of the basic tools anybody who wants to use SQL needs to know. In the future we will deal with other concepts related to SQL
This post will look at society and terms related to it as defined from two schools of thought in society. This viewpoints are functionalism and conflict theory.
Functionalist
There are several terms used in the functionalist school for describing societies. For example, collective conscience is the beliefs that constitute a society. An example from the United States would be an emphasis on individualism and capitalism. These beliefs are a part of most Americans’ lives and serve as a common worldview for people from this country.
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Social integration is the strength of the ties within a society or a social group. Some societies have stronger ties than others. Many factors can affect social integration, such as the size, similarities of the members, etc. For example, social integration is generally a problem in the US as there is a lot of infighting and discord that is not found in other societies.
There is also a concept called solidarity. Solidarity is a continuum with mechanical solidarity on one side and organic solidarity on the other. Mechanical solidarity has such characteristics as a strong collective conscience, high social integration, and a dedication to doing things the way they are for traditional reasons. This form of solidarity is common in pre-industrial societies where there is a low division of labor.
Organic solidarity is the opposite of mechanical. This means there is a low collective conscience and low social integration. This form of solidarity is common in industrial societies with a high degree of specialized labor. At extreme levels, organic solidarity can be a place for anomie or lawlessness. Anomie involves the rejection of societal norms, which leads to a loss of identity for members of that society.
Norms are often developed and encouraged through habitulization and institutionalization. Habitulization is learning norms through habit development through friends and family. Instititunilization is learning norms through the workplace or school. These norm-forming places are often attacked in societies that have organic solidarity.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory views society as a place of alienation. Different people define Marx’s alineation in different ways. Some have called it a separation from what one does. Others have said that alineation is a lack of individual development. Karl Marx’s in his Communist Manifesto indicates that alienation can happen in several different ways.
One way alienation happens is through alienation from the product of one’s labor. A second is through the process of one’s labor. THird is from others, and the fourth is from self. All of these various forms of alienation happen in a factory setting for the most part and are found in an industrial society. In other words, alienation is similar to the traits found in an organic solidarity context.
To stop alienation, Marx essentially encourages revolution to overturn the bourgeoisie and their money so that the means of production belong to the people. People who did not agree with this position were accused of having a false consciousness or beliefs, not in their best interest. IN other words, proponents of Conflict theory imply that they know what is best for people.
Conclusion
Different experts choose to look at society using different viewpoints. Functionalist and conflict theorists have different opinions over the structure of societies. Agreeing is not the point but rather understanding how there is more than one way to see anything.
Most of us are use to using the mouse to accomplish various task on the computer or in Excel in particular. However, this is not always a practical way to approach matters when coding. In this video, we will look at using VBA to move between worksheets and accomplish various task. This is really beneficial for people looking to automate some tasks.
Ionia was a Greek colony in western Turkey founded around 3000 years ago by people looking for land and trading opportunities. This colony of several Greek cities has played a pivotal role in history in several ways. Not only is Ionia famous for rebelling against the Persians, but foundational ideas of science were formed in this place as well. In particular, a man named Thales played a critical part in the development of science.
Role of Greek gods
To understand the influence of Ionia and Thales, it is important to look at the worldview of these people. During this time, religion played a major role in the life of the Greeks. The problem with this was not that it wasn’t scientific. The other problem was the erratic and licentious behavior of the Greek gods. Below are just a few examples from Greek mythology demonstrating the vengeful and wild behavior of Greek gods.
Zeus could not control his behavior around women and was notorious for his unfaithfulness to his wife, Hera.
Hera would often attack the women with whom Zeus was unfaithful by causing the death of the woman involved or persecuting the children of these adulterous relationships such as Heracles.
Poseidon, the god of the sea, raped a woman in Athena’s temple. The victim was then turned into the hideous Medusa by Athena for desecrating her temple.
Behind the scenes of the Trojan War, the gods were at work, not to mention in the many poems of Homer.
This list could go on for pages. The gods were crazy, to say the least. People tried to appease the gods through sacrifices and work. This was not always successful, and people were always looking for ways to obtain security from this.
Looking Towards Nature
Due to the perceived inconsistent behavior of the Greek gods, people began to look to other ways to understand the world, leading them to seek answers in nature. Nature, in comparison to the Greek gods, was somewhat regular in its behavior.
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A major proponent of examining nature over mythology was Thales, a sixth-century Ionian who was one of the first philosopher-scientists. Thales looked at facts and observations to understand the world. He believed in trusting his senses rather than the supernatural explanations of his time. This could almost be viewed as a form of atheism. Thales was a well-traveled individual who was also one of the first to take credit for his ideas by writing his name on them. Thereby demonstrates an example of individualism, which was unusual at that time.
However, Thales was not just talk. He backed his position with several major innovations. For example, Thales accomplished several mathematical/scientific feats. Such as the following.
He predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC. This was important because ancient Greeks viewed solar eclipses as a sign of supernatural abandonment by their unpredictable gods. For Thales to predict such a sign was utterly unbelievable and showed a regularity to nature that the gods never showed.
Using what would later become Geometry, Thales determined the height of buildings such as pyramids by measuring their shadows on the ground. This, of course, was revolutionary at the time.
Thales also used Geometry to calculate how far a ship was from shore. This was a groundbreaking discovery as such knowledge was important for ships always concerned with running aground.
Thales was also one of the first to observe static electricity. He didn’t discover it, but he was one of the first to examine it scientifically.
The volume of work by this pre-Socratic philosopher was hard for people to ignore. His work encourages others to look beyond the supernatural to understand the world around them.
Conclusion
The Greek colony of Ionia was a place that contributed to modern scientific thought. In this colony, Thales began to look beyond the gods for answers and instead looked to nature. By doing so, not only did he make several major discoveries, but he also set an influential example of how people should learn about the world.
